Molecular signaling pathways, pathophysiological features in various organs, and treatment strategies in SARS-CoV2 infection.

Cytokine storms and extra-activated cytokine signaling pathways can lead to severe tissue damage and patient death. Activation of inflammatory signaling pathways during Cytokine storms are an important factor in the development of acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2), which is the major health problem today, causing systemic and local inflammation. Cytokine storms attract many inflammatory cells that attack the lungs and other organs and cause tissue damage. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) are expressed in a different type of tissues. inhibition of ACE2 activity impairs renin-angiotensin (RAS) function, which is related to the severity of symptoms and mortality rate in COVID-19 patients. Different signaling cascades are activated, affecting various organs during SARS-CoV-2 infection. Nowadays, there is no specific treatment for COVID-19, but scientists have recognized and proposed several treatment alternatives, including applying cytokine inhibitors, immunomodulators, and plasma therapy. Herein, we have provided the detailed mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 induced cytokine signaling and its connection with pathophysiological features in different organs. Possible treatment options to cope with the severe clinical manifestations of COVID-19 are also discussed.

The importance of neopterin in COVID-19: The prognostic value and relation with the disease severity.

Coronavirus Disease 2019 [COVID-19], caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 [SARS-CoV-2], has rapidly evolved into a global health emergency. Neopterin [NPT], produced by macrophages when stimulated with interferon [IFN-]gamma, is an essential cytokine in the antiviral immune response. NPT has been used as a marker for the early assessment of disease severity in different diseases. The leading cause of NPT production is the pro-inflammatory cytokine IFN-. Macrophage activation has also been revealed to be linked with disease severity in SARS-CoV-2 patients. We demonstrate the importance of NPT in the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 and suggest that targeting NPT in SARS-CoV-2 infection may be critical in the early prediction of disease progression and provision of timely management of infected individuals.